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We also understand you have a number of subjects to learn and this might make it hard for you to take care of all the assignments. You are expected to do a thorough research for each assignment to earn yourself a good grade even with the limited time you have. This calls upon the need to employ a professional writer. In the day work schedule, the interplay between the circadian and homeostatic processes maintains a stable, low level of sleepiness during most of the day, followed by a rapidly rising level of sleepiness in the late evening leading to the initiation of sleep.

Furthermore, during nighttime sleep, the interplay between the two processes produces a consolidated sleep period. If the sleep period is not long enough, dissipation of the homeostatic pressure for sleep may be insufficient, and use of an alarm clock may be needed to wake up in time for work or other responsibilities. By contrast, in a night work schedule, the interplay between the circadian and homeostatic processes produces a steady increase in sleepiness through most of the night.

Furthermore, the rising circadian wake drive during daytime sleep causes early awakening and incomplete dissipation of the homeostatic pressure for sleep. Thus, compared to a day work scenario, a night work scenario tends to produce sustained sleep loss and dynamically changing, higher levels of sleepiness [ 13 ]. Given this biological regulation of sleepiness and its impact on mental fatigue, a prescriptive limit on work hours would not, by itself, prevent high fatigue levels during a night work schedule.

In fact, a prescriptive limit on work hours could inadvertently place the commute home at the time of greatest sleepiness, just before the rising circadian wake drive would partially reduce sleepiness again and mitigate fatigue [ 11 ].

Shift duration is a safety and health issue with legal implications, and policies and procedures pertaining to shift duration are best embedded within organizational risk and safety management systems [ ].

Here we provide a few links to example frameworks and free resources shared with permission , which may serve as a starting point for organizations to establish their own policies:. In large part it readily applies to U. It may be adapted for U. The Fatigue Risk Management Guidelines for Emergency Medical Services Implementation Guidebook helps EMS administrators with the implementation of rigorously developed, evidence-based guidelines [ 52 ] for fatigue risk management in EMS, with condensed summaries of recommendations and sample policy statements that may be tailored to the needs of local agencies.

After making changes in shift duration, organizations should monitor and respond to leading indicators of potential problems and both positive and negative outcomes to ensure the effectiveness of their shift duration policies. Monitoring systems should identify, report, quantify and manage existing and emerging risks. For the development of such systems, the following recommendations deserve consideration:. Where the risk level is low, monitoring may be relatively minimal.

Where the risk level is high, however, monitoring should be more comprehensive, evidence-based and, in larger operations, bolstered by third-party oversight. These indicators should enable the organization to demonstrate evidence for the following. These could include, and are not limited to, measures of:. This guidance should, however, not be interpreted as advice to minimize resources dedicated to monitoring.

This Appendix provides background information and references that pertain to selected countermeasures for risks associated with shift duration as shown in Table 1. Implementation of these countermeasures can be complex, and consultation with an expert is generally recommended. While the primary focus of this paper is on shift duration, the timing of shift starts and ends, and other aspects of the working time arrangements are also important to consider in this regard [ , ].

Scientific evidence pertaining to these issues is limited, and conclusive studies of scheduling improvements are largely lacking due to a wide range of possible confounds [ ]. Nonetheless, the following guidelines provide some insight into what kinds of scheduling practices affect performance, safety, and health risks and therefore present potential opportunities for improvement.

Shift systems with backward rotation, in which the start times of consecutive shifts is advancing i. The speed of rotation i. Shift durations beyond 12 h in duration tend to be associated with increased risk levels [ 80 , ]. Shift durations of 24 h or more without protected opportunities to nap while on duty are not recommended [ 51 ]. Evidence is mixed, however, on h shifts compared to 8-h shifts [ 51 , ].

Risk levels tend to accumulate across consecutive shifts without days off [ , ]. Double i. Irregular and unpredictable work hours and on-call duty schedules are often perceived as stressors and may also interfere with the ability to obtain adequate sleep, thereby increasing risk levels [ 9 , ]. Whereas the impact of workload or task load is not well established [ , ], high workload may interfere with control over the pacing of work tasks and restrict time for rest breaks, which may increase risk levels.

Naps as short as 15 min and as long as several hours can be effective, whether before work pre-emptive or prophylactic naps , during work on-the-job or strategic naps , or after work catch-up naps [ , — ]. Naps may facilitate adaptation to a shift work schedule and ease the return to daytime activity [ , ], and may offer cardiovascular health benefits [ , ].

Split sleep schedules, in which a person takes a nap after a work shift and another nap before the next shift, have been associated with increased sleepiness [ ], but few differences in performance relative to a consolidated post-shift sleep bout [ , ].

For on-the-job napping to be implemented successfully as a countermeasure strategy, it is important that it be sanctioned [ ] and that there is access to a safe and quiet place to rest while on break [ , ]. Importantly, napping may produce post-nap sleep inertia, a transient feeling of grogginess and impaired performance immediately upon awakening [ , ]. Sleep inertia can be particularly problematic in on-call settings [ ] and may require a worker to delay the return to work for up to about 30 min after waking [ , ].

Sleep inertia may be less intense after shorter approximately 10—30 min naps, but scientific evidence on this matter is inconclusive [ ]. Caffeine consumed just prior to a nap appears to be an effective countermeasure to performance impairment due to sleep inertia immediately after the nap [ ] see Appendix D3. There is abundant evidence that caffeine reduces sleepiness and fatigue and mitigates deficits in cognitive performance [ , ].

When caffeine is used in conjunction with a nap, it may also reduce the time to overcome post-nap sleep inertia [ — ]. Caffeine is widely available and found in many drinks and foods, either naturally occurring or as an additive; furthermore, caffeine can be obtained in the form of chewing gum and various over-the-counter medications. Available evidence suggests that moderate use of caffeine is compatible with a healthy lifestyle [ ]. The pharmacodynamics of caffeine are poorly understood, and large inter-individual differences in caffeine sensitivity, effectiveness, habituation, and tolerance exist [ — ].

This limits the ability to provide tailored advice regarding dosing of caffeine to mitigate fatigue — although given the widespread presence of caffeine in foods and drinks, precise dosing could be difficult in practice regardless.

Even so, the preponderance of scientific evidence indicates that caffeine is an effective fatigue countermeasure, and access to caffeine as part of a comprehensive fatigue risk management program is recommended [ ]. Caffeine present in the bloodstream just before bedtime may delay sleep onset and reduce the quality and quantity of subsequent sleep, although individuals differ considerably in their sensitivity to these effects [ ].

Sustained use of high-dose caffeine can cause additional undesirable effects, including anxiety, tremor, arrhythmias, insomnia, dehydration, and withdrawal headaches [ , ]. For healthy adults, caffeine consumption up to about mg per day mg per day in pregnant women is generally considered safe [ ]; however, the decision to use caffeine and the amount and frequency of use should be based on individual assessment of benefits versus undesirable side effects.

Sleep disturbances that are not necessarily related to the work environment contribute to work-related errors and injuries [ ]. Sleep hygiene, which refers to a set of behavioral and environmental recommendations intended to promote good sleep [ ], can help to obtain adequate duration of quality sleep.

The recommended amount of sleep for the average adult is 7 h per night or more [ , ]. Achieving this on a regular basis provides some degree of resilience against the adverse cognitive effects of subsequent sleep loss [ , ]. Sleep hygiene environmental recommendations, which pertain to personal sleep spaces as well as any workplace sleep facilities, include ensuring a comfortable, appropriately sized bed; minimal light exposure and noise; comfortable temperature and humidity; and no sleep interruptions unless there is an emergency [ , ].

Sleep hygiene behavioral recommendations found in the literature, which are primarily focused on the habitual sleeping environment, include maintaining regular bed and wake times; avoiding daytime naps; avoiding bright light exposure during the 2—3 h prior to sleep; avoiding large meals or alcohol consumption for at least 2 h prior to bedtime; avoiding strenuous exercise immediately before bedtime; and avoiding caffeine, nicotine, and other stimulants for at least 6 h before bedtime [ , ].

In operational settings, some or all of the behavioral recommendations may not be feasible or practical to implement e. That is, some of the behavioral recommendations could be counterproductive for getting enough sleep or ensuring optimal performance and safety especially in shift work settings. Also, although they are worthy sleep health recommendations in their own right, evidence of their effectiveness with regard to workplace performance, safety and health is limited [ ].

The behavioral recommendations should therefore not be seen as advice against pursuing catch-up sleep or naps, or using bright light or caffeine prior to bedtime, when doing so would be the better choice for safety. Sleep disorders e. For affected workers this can result in poor sleep quality, insufficient sleep, or excessive sleepiness, which can then negatively affect work performance.

Additionally, some medications e. Workplace education regarding sleep disorders, treatment, and implications for safety and well-being has been found to reduce risk of occupational injuries [ ].

Furthermore, an employer-supported sleep disorder obstructive sleep apnea treatment program in the U. A discussion of their pharmacological and clinical specifications is beyond the scope of this paper but can be found in the literature [ , ]. The advantages and disadvantages of wake- and sleep-promoting medications and the legal and ethical considerations for their use in operational settings have also been discussed in the literature [ , ].

Certain occupations have regulations or policies that prohibit the use of some or all of these medications. Use of wake-promoting medications may interfere with the ability to obtain adequate sleep after bedtime [ ].

Use of sleep-promoting medications may result in next-day residual sedation, which could impair performance while at work or commuting to work [ ], although caffeine intake may be helpful to mitigate this effect [ ]. Long-term use of wake- or sleep-promoting medications may have unintended effects on sleep, mood, and health [ , ]. Interactions with other medications or with alcohol [ ] may increase the risk of side effects from wake- or sleep promoting medications.

Alcohol, which some individuals use as a sleep aid, may degrade sleep quality, exacerbate sleep apnea, and cause next-day sleepiness [ ].

Melatonin, which in the United States is available over the counter as a dietary supplement, is usually marketed and used as a sleep aid. However, the primary effect of melatonin—a hormone that is also naturally produced by the pineal gland during the evening and night—is that it can shift the timing of the biological clock [ ].

Optimizing the timing of melatonin administration is critical to achieving the desired effect, with morning administration leading to delays of the biological clock shifting sleep later and evening administration leading to advances of the biological clock shifting sleep earlier [ ].

This makes achieving optimal effectiveness complicated in practice, and mistimed melatonin administration may even result in the opposite effect of what is desired. Melatonin use is generally considered safe and side effects are minimal [ ], but it is not regulated in the United States and may contain additives with adverse health effects. Light has the potential to shift the biological clock, and it also affects alertness [ ].

Morning light exposure causes the biological clock to advance shift earlier , and evening light exposure causes the clock to delay shift later [ , ]. The magnitude of these effects depends on the duration, brightness, and color of light exposure.

The brighter the light and the longer the exposure, the greater the shifting [ , ], and light that is blue or blue-enriched is particularly effective for shifting the biological clock [ ]. Based on these principles, manipulation of light exposure can be used to shift the biological clock by some desired amount of time, for example to facilitate adaptation to a shift work schedule [ ].

Optimizing the timing of light exposure is critical to achieving the desired effect [ ]. The biological clock tends to shift no more than a few hours per day. This approach to shift work adaptation would therefore only work well for fixed or slowly rotating shift schedules, in which shift start or end times are expected to occur at approximately the same time for several consecutive days. Even then, additional measures may be required, such as wearing dark goggles or using technological solutions to reduce bright or blue light exposure at certain times [ ], making the desired effect difficult to achieve [ ].

Strategies for mitigating risks in shift workers that rely on minimization of extended wakefulness and sleep loss, rather than shifting the biological clock, may be more effective in practice. Light exposure has an acute alerting effect [ ].

To some extent the magnitude of this effect depends on the brightness level of the light [ ], and light that is blue or blue-enriched is particularly effective for promoting alertness [ ]. Little is known about how long the alerting effect of light exposure lasts after the exposure has ended [ ].

That said, use of blue-enriched white light in the workplace has been reported to improve alertness, performance, and sleep quality [ ]. The acute alerting effect of light, however, cannot be separated from its effects on the biological clock. Especially in shift work settings, therefore, individuals exposed to bright or blue light to improve alertness may also experience a shift of the biological clock, which may or may not be problematic depending on the situation.

Furthermore, inappropriate light exposure has the potential to adversely affect sleep. In many situations, therefore, light may not be a suitable countermeasure for risks associated with shift duration. Exposure to light at night associated with shift work has been found to increase the risk of cancer [ — ].

Additionally, chronic exposure to bright or blue light therapy has been linked to retinal damage later in life [ , ]. This finding awaits corroboration with additional clinical studies. In addition to the well-known benefits of physical activity from exercise and activity breaks with regard to skeletomuscular and overall health and wellness, physical activity has some potential to improve sleep [ , ].

However, exercise less than 1 h before bedtime may delay sleep onset [ ]. Exercise also has the potential to shift the biological clock, with morning exercise facilitating advances and evening exercise facilitating delays of the biological clock [ ]. In the laboratory, nightly bouts of exercise have been found to promote adjustment of the biological clock to a night shift schedule [ ].

During sleep deprivation, physical activity may produce a modest short-term reduction in subjective sleepiness, but there may not be any concomitant improvement in cognitive performance [ ].

A review of continuous exercise at active workstations found minimal evidence for increased workplace performance or productivity [ ]. The extent to which exercise can be used effectively as a fatigue or risk countermeasure in operational settings remains to be investigated. Technologies available to help manage risks from fatigue can be broadly categorized as biomathematical models of fatigue [ ], tools for monitoring sleep and sleep debt [ ], tools for detecting and warning about fatigue [ ], and fitness-for-duty tests [ ].

Biomathematical models of fatigue make use of equations describing the regulation of sleep and wakefulness and the biological clock to provide predictions of sleepiness or performance impairment for a hypothetical average individual, based on a given sleep schedule or work schedule [ , ].

Use of these models is commonplace before, during and after duty periods in commercial and military aviation [ , ], where shift scheduling is typically tightly managed.

However, they are deemed to be of more limited utility in settings where shift scheduling is on demand or otherwise less strictly under operational control [ ]. Tools for monitoring sleep have become widely available in the consumer market over the last decade.

Frequently integrated with physical activity and health monitoring systems, they usually consist of wearable sensors coupled with a smartphone-based software application [ ]. Such tools do not usually meet professionally accepted criteria for sleep assessment [ ], but have been found helpful in allowing individuals to monitor and potentially improve their sleep [ ] or potentially seek medical evaluation.

A significant challenge with wearable technologies is user acceptability; people often do not tolerate wearing additional devices, especially if they are uncomfortable or obtrusive, interfere with work, or do not also fulfill other useful functions [ ].

Tools for detecting and warning about fatigue, commonly referred to as fatigue or drowsiness detection and warning systems, are manifold and diverse. Technologies for fatigue detection aim generally to measure fatigue continuously from unobtrusively observable signals that correlate with fatigue, such as various ocular measures, sleepiness-related variables derived from the electroencephalogram EEG , indices of heart rate variability, changes in speech and voice, or facial expressions.

A diversity of modalities for providing fatigue warnings have been implemented, including visual, auditory, and haptic alerts as well as warning messages transmitted to third parties for possible intervention.

In cars and trucks, fatigue and error detection systems may activate driver assist technologies to help avoid accidents [ 69 ]. Most fitness-for-duty tests are not specific for fatigue; other sources of impairment e. For fitness-for-duty tests that rely on user response to assess fatigue, variations in motivation and effort may also influence test results.

Fatigue prediction, detection and warning technologies that have been shown to be both sensitive and specific to relevant levels of fatigue are rare. However, both of these accuracy attributes are important. Technologies need to be sensitive enough to detect or predict levels of fatigue that compromise performance and safety, as failures to identify these could have critical, even fatal consequences. At the same time, technologies need to be specific enough not to inadvertently trigger alerts when fatigue levels are low, as too many false alarms will quickly desensitize the user.

Many of the currently available technologies are proprietary, and the extent to which they have been subjected to independent research is often limited. For most of these technologies, publicly accessible data on accuracy, reliability, and validity are limited or unavailable. Collection of objective data in operational settings may have important implications for privacy and could carry liability for employers and employees.

For example, following an accident in which fatigue is suspected to be a main contributor, sleep monitoring data may be subpoenaed to determine the amount of sleep obtained prior to the accident. This potential issue notwithstanding, when used as part of a comprehensive fatigue risk management system, fatigue prediction, detection and warning technologies may contribute to a worthwhile, data-driven process of continuous improvements in risk mitigation see Appendix D9.

Even though shift duration and its attendant fatigue may be the source of risks to performance, safety, and health, countermeasures do not necessarily have to address the source of these risks to mitigate the risks themselves [ 70 ]. Furthermore, an educated workforce is a key component of risk mitigation.

Fatigue risk management training should help workers, their managers, and other operational personnel e. Fatigue risk management training and other risk mitigation strategies may be incorporated into a fatigue risk management system FRMS , which is a proactive, data-driven process whereby an organization undertakes a formal risk management approach to reducing the effects of fatigue in the workplace [ , ].

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Transp Res Rec ; : 11 — Dekker S. This new trailer shows off a bit of what's possible with the things strapped to your back. That means the disastrously bad shooter, which takes place shortly after the end of 's Aliens, has ramifications on 's Alien 3 and 's Alien Resurrection which didn't do the lore any favors either. Major ones. Aliens: Colonial Marines' storyline features some lore-breaking elements that directly contradict major events from the films and makes me wonder if Fox and Gearbox or TimeGate, or whoever actually developed the campaign even understand what "canon" means.

Here are my three biggest problems with this incredibly damaging new version of the Alien lore. Commence game jam! Commence Mojam! Minecraft studio Mojang, a group of indie studios, and the folks behind the Humble Bundle have teamed up for Mojam 2, a hour game jam that starts right now.

Watch along via TwitchTV and be prepared to pay what you want for any new pixelated creations that catch your eye. Oh, hello there, new game from Square Enix. Didn't see you lurking in the shadows back there. Love the name of your website, "www. An unromantic videogame spin on Patrick Swayze's seminal work, Ghost, perhaps? Whatever it is, I'm interested in learning more about Murdered: Soul Suspect. Preorder Warfighter, get access to the BF4 beta, the deal went.

Seven months later, it appears we're finally about to learn more about the next installment in the shooter franchise, because EA and DICE are now showing off Battlefield 4 behind closed doors and an official reveal appears imminent. Despite the popularity of '90s classics like Wing Commander, X-Wing vs Tie Fighter, and Freespace, the combat space sim genre has been as dormant as a white dwarf for more than a decade. Thanks to crowdfunding sites like Kickstarter, however, there may be some light at the end of the wormhole for Luke Skywalker and Buck Rogers wannabes.

The original Crysis was one of the most graphically intensive games ever released on the PC, pushing the boundaries of what most graphics cards could handle even years after it arrived. Crytek's continuing to live on the edge with the release of Crysis 3, which thankfully ships with a much broader suite of graphical options than Crysis 2 originally possessed.

Like any red-blooded American, I am genetically required to hate anyone who takes the label of "King" for themselves. We like to call those folks "tyrants" around these parts.

Now if you'll excuse me, I've got shackles to throw off. I love the generosity of many indie developers. They really just want you to play their games. As of today, they've launched A Valley Without Wind 2, and are giving it away for free to anyone who purchased the first game. Remember World of StarCraft?

How about StarCraft Universe? If you remember one of those, you remember them both, because they're the same game, just renamed after some legal disputes with Blizzard. Here's one thing I won't be doing in March of the Eagles, which launches today: invading Russia.

I remember my history classes, and that never ends well. There's way too many people there, it's way too cold, and my Napoleonic-era soldiers aren't anywhere near ready for that sort of fight. I think I'll go ahead and let them do their own thing while I take the rest of Europe. Still, I can't help but salivate over the new card Nvidia says it designed for "gaming supercomputers. BlizzCon is back.

Blizzard unexpectedly canceled its annual show last year to focus on actually making games, much to the chagrin of purple-painted night elves everywhere.